Learning Theories and Instructional Design Models

The following are notes and materials I created during my graduate studies in Learning Design and Technology at the University Of Maryland Global Campus
Andragogy Principles
Dick and Carey Model
In this mini-podcast, I describe the Dick and Carey model and use the example of corporate training in effective business negotiation to illustrate its application.
Cognitivism and Connectivism Compared
Learning Theories Compared
Key Ideas
Behaviorism

- Focus only on changing observable behaviours.

- Knowledge is a repertoire of behaviours, a set of passive, largely mechanical responses to external stimuli.

- Learning is acquisition of new behaviour, resulting in changes in form or frequency of observable performance.

- Behaviour can be explained without reference to mental activity.

- Operant conditioning: satisfying responses are conditioned, while unsatisfying ones are not. The desired response must be rewarded in order for learning to take place.

Constructivism

- Focus on learners' active "construction" of new knowledge out of their experiences, building it on the foundation of existing beliefs and schemata.

- Knowledge is actively built by human work and interaction.

- Learning is a process of active discovery.

- The Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD)

- Scaffolding Theory

- Social constructivism: Learning is inherently a social process as learners and instructors work together to build knowledge.

Cognitivism

- Focus on how mental processes should be organized for successful learning to take place.

- Knowledge is a set of mental constructions built through learning experiences.

- Learning is a process of integrating new information into prior knowledge and existing schemas. Learning can be seen as a change in a learner's schemata.

- Cognitive Load Theory

- Social Learning Theory: Learning is a cognitive process that takes place in a social context.

Andragogy

- Focus on adult learners.

- Learning is the process of gaining knowledge and expertise.

- Assumptions about adult learners:

1. They need to know why they need to learn something before learning it.

2. They need to be self-directed in their learning.

3. They bring prior knowledge and experiences to learning.

4. They learn more effectively when they are ready to learn.

5. They're oriented to learning what is immediately useful.

6. They're more intrinsically motivated.

Learners' Roles
Behaviorism

- Learners are passive; they respond to external stimuli from organizers of the learning experience.

- They are to be "acted upon" by the instructor-controlled environment.

- Learners acquire knowledge through mechanisms of reward and punishment.

Constructivism

- Learners are the makers of meaning and knowledge.

- They learn by doing rather than observing and actively participate in their own education.

- They bring prior knowledge into a learning situation, where they critique and re-evaluate their understanding of it.

- They learn collaboratively and benefit from knowledge of other learners and More Knowledgeable Others.

Cognitivism

- Learners are active participants in the learning process.

- They organize new information within preexisting schema and use their logical capacity to process information.

- Learning process includes learners’ thoughts, beliefs, attitudes, values.

- They learn from other people via observation, imitation, and modeling.

Andragogy

- Learners need to be ready and motivated to learn.

- They need to be involved in the planning and evaluation of their instruction.

- They need to apply their prior knowledge and experience.

- They focus on solving immediate work and life problems.

- They learn from the instructor, but also from one another.

Instructors' Roles
Behaviorism

- Instructors promote learners’ desired responses (behaviours) by providing appropriate stimuli and continual reinforcement.

- Instructors should put awards in the "right" path and "obstacles" in all other paths. With repetition, learners forget all other paths.

Constructivism

- Instructors are guides and facilitators who help learners construct their own knowledge.

- Instructors cannot directly impart knowledge to students; their goal is to provide experiences that facilitate learners' construction of knowledge.

- They foster learners' critical thinking and create motivated and independent learners.

Cognitivism

- Instructors structure new information to connect it to learners' previously acquired knowledge, abilities and experiences.

- They support development of accurate mental connections.

- They ask questions and give feedback to help learners refine their thinking and recognize where they may be wrong.

- They provide meta cognitive training.

Andragogy

- Instructors are facilitators, resources, guides, encouragers.

- They help increase learners’ self-esteem and assist learners in becoming self-directed.

- Instructors need to accept viewpoints from learners in different life stages and

with different values.

Instruction Examples
Behaviorism

- Grading

- Repetition

- Memorization

- Question-and-response

- Praise

- Deadlines

- Tests and exams as ways of proving knowledge

- Class participation as part of the grade

Constructivism

- Labs

- Quests

- Case studies

- Experiments

- Guided discovery

- (Virtual) field trips

- Problem-based learning

- Simulation-based learning

- Collaborative learning

Cognitivism

- Framing

- Concept mapping

- Advance organizers

- Summarizing

- Synthesizing

- Analogies and metaphors

- Mnemonics

- Instructional explanations

- Demonstrations

- Reflection on experience

Andragogy

- Self-directed projects

- Case studies

- Role playing

- Simulations

- Discussions

- Self-evaluation

- Workshops

- Seminars

Benefits
Behaviorism

- Works with observable behaviour

- Behaviour indicates success or failure of the teaching approach.

- When students need to learn to do something, this approach may help avoid overthinking.

- Standardized tests and grades are helpful in some instances.

- External motivation works sometimes; some learners need a “carrot and a stick” at some point.

- The teaching process may be easier to organize.

Constructivism

- Learners actively participate in their own education.

- Learners learn collaboratively.

- Focusing on ZPD allows to progress in learning, without becoming overwhelmed or frustrated by too much new information or feeling of failure.

- Scaffolding provides the necessary support for learner’s progress.

Cognitivism

- Improves comprehension

- Develops problem-solving skills

- Builds upon previous knowledge and ideas

- Helps to make connections and apply new concepts.

Andragogy

- Theoretical foundation for lifelong learning

- A learner-centric approach

- Brings learners' knowledge and experience into the learning process

- Practically oriented

Disadvantages
Behaviorism

- Requires an outside stimulus.

- Imposes outside restrictions on learners.

- Reduces the agency and empowerment of learners.

- Disregards the effect of mental states on behaviour; behavior without cognition is blind.

Constructivism

- Adapting to individual ZPDs of learners in large groups may not be realistic.

- Providing the right scaffolding for different learners in large groups may not be realistic.

- Learning by doing may not always be possible.

- May be less effective where memorization or heavy data-load is necessary.

- Some learners find social learning distracting and pressure-inducing.

Cognitivism

- Learning is not always exclusively a mental process.

- Doesn't explain how learners move into the next stage of cognitive or moral development.

- Lack of recognition of the social context in which learning occurs.

Andragogy

- Should adults be self-directed in their learning? What if they miss important and necessary developmental areas as a result?

- Should adults' prior experience be brought into the learning process if it's incorrect or misleading?

- What if adults really need to learn something important before they're ready?

- What if adults should really learn something that's not directly related to their current role?

References

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Image and icon credits

Images by Filip Bunkens, Benjamin Child, Akshay Chauchan, Patrick Tomasso, Ruben Rodriguez, MagicDesk from Unsplash and Pixabay.
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